Tare da zarra ta tsawon shekaru - part 1

Ana kiran karnin da ya gabata a matsayin "shekarun zarra". A wannan lokacin ba da nisa ba, an tabbatar da wanzuwar “tubalin” da ke kewaye da mu, kuma an saki sojojin da ke kwance a cikinsu. Tunanin kwayar zarra kanta, duk da haka, yana da dogon tarihi, kuma ba za a iya fara labarin tarihin ilimin tsarin kwayoyin halitta ba in ba haka ba tare da kalmomin da ke magana a zamanin da.

1. Wani guntu na fresco Raphael "Makarantar Athens", yana nuna Plato (a hannun dama, masanin falsafa yana da siffofi na Leonardo da Vinci) da Aristotle.

"Tuni tsohon..."

…Masu falsafa sun zo ga ƙarshe cewa duk yanayi ya ƙunshi ƙananan barbashi marasa fahimta. Tabbas, a wancan lokacin (kuma na dogon lokaci bayan haka) masana kimiyya ba su sami damar gwada tunaninsu ba. Sun kasance ƙoƙari ne kawai don bayyana abubuwan lura na yanayi da amsa tambayar: "Ko kwayoyin halitta na iya rubewa har abada, ko kuwa akwai karshen fission?«

An ba da amsoshi a cikin da'irar al'adu daban-daban (musamman a tsohuwar Indiya), amma ci gaban kimiyya ya sami tasiri ta hanyar binciken masana falsafa na Girka. A cikin al'amurran hutu na bara na "Mai fasaha na Matasa", masu karatu sun koyi game da tarihin shekarun da suka wuce na gano abubuwa ("Haɗari tare da Elements", MT 7-9/2014), wanda kuma ya fara a tsohuwar Girka. A baya a cikin karni na XNUMX BC, an nemo babban bangaren da aka gina kwayoyin halitta (kasuwanci, element) a cikin abubuwa daban-daban: ruwa (Thales), iska (Anaximenes), wuta (Heraclitus) ko ƙasa (Xenophanes).

Empedocles ya sulhunta su duka, yana bayyana cewa kwayar halitta ba ta ƙunshi abu ɗaya ba, amma abubuwa huɗu. Aristotle (karni na farko BC) ya kara da wani kyakkyawan abu - ether, wanda ya cika dukan sararin samaniya, kuma ya bayyana yiwuwar canza abubuwa. A daya bangaren kuma, duniyar da ke tsakiyar sararin samaniya, sararin sama ya ganta, wanda ko da yaushe ba ya canzawa. Godiya ga ikon Aristotle, wannan ka'idar tsarin kwayoyin halitta da duka an dauke shi daidai fiye da shekaru dubu biyu. Ya zama, a tsakanin sauran abubuwa, tushen ci gaban alchemy, sabili da haka ilimin sunadarai da kansa (1).

2. Bust of Democritus na Abdera (460-370 BC)

Duk da haka, an kuma haifar da wani hasashe a layi daya. Leucippus (ƙarni na XNUMX BC) ya yi imanin cewa kwayoyin halitta sun ƙunshi kananan barbashi motsi a cikin sarari. Dalibinsa ne ya haɓaka ra'ayin masanin falsafa - Democritus na Abdera (c. 460-370 BC) (2). Ya kira "blocks" da ke yin kwayoyin halitta (Atomos na Girkanci = indivisible). Ya bayar da hujjar cewa ba za a iya raba su ba kuma ba sa canzawa, kuma adadin su a sararin duniya yana nan dawwama. Atoms suna motsawa cikin sarari.

Lokacin zarra an haɗa su (ta tsarin ƙugiya da idanu) - kowane nau'in jiki yana samuwa, kuma idan aka rabu da juna - jikin ya lalace. Democritus ya yi imanin cewa akwai nau'ikan atom marasa iyaka da yawa, waɗanda suka bambanta da siffa da girma. Siffofin zarra suna tantance halayen wani abu, alal misali, zuma mai dadi tana da zarra masu santsi, ita kuma vinegar mai tsami tana da na angular; fararen jikinsu suna yin zarra masu santsi, kuma baƙaƙen jikinsu suna samar da atom ɗin tare da m surface.

Yadda aka haɗa kayan kuma yana rinjayar abubuwan da ke cikin kwayoyin halitta: a cikin daskarewa, atoms suna kusa da juna, kuma a cikin jikin jiki masu laushi suna kwance. Ma'anar ra'ayoyin Democritus ita ce magana: "A gaskiya, akwai kawai fanko da kwayoyin halitta, duk abin da ke cikin ruɗi ne."

A cikin ƙarni na baya, ra'ayoyin Democritus sun samo asali ne ta hanyar masana falsafa na gaba, wasu nassoshi kuma ana samun su a cikin rubuce-rubucen Plato. Epicurus - daya daga cikin magadan - ko da ya yi imani da cewa zarra sun ƙunshi ko da ƙananan sassa ("ƙananan abubuwan farko"). Duk da haka, ka'idar atomistic na tsarin kwayoyin halitta ya ɓace ga abubuwan Aristotle. Makullin - har ma a lokacin - an samo shi cikin gwaninta. Har sai an sami kayan aikin tabbatar da wanzuwar atom, ana iya ganin sauyin abubuwa cikin sauƙi.

Misali: lokacin da ruwa ya zafi (sanyi da rigar kashi), an sami iska (zafi da rigar tururi), kuma ƙasa ta kasance a ƙasan jirgin (sanyi da bushewar hazo na abubuwan da ke narkar da ruwa). Abubuwan da suka ɓace - dumi da bushewa - an samar da su ta hanyar wuta, wanda ya dumama jirgin.

Sabani da akai-akai adadin zarra sun kuma sabawa abubuwan da aka gani, kamar yadda ake tsammanin ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta za su fito "daga kome" har zuwa karni na XNUMX. Ra'ayoyin Democritus bai samar da wani tushe na gwaje-gwajen alchemical da suka shafi canjin karafa ba. Hakanan yana da wahala a yi tunani da nazarin nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta marasa iyaka. Ka'idar farko ta zama kamar ta fi sauƙi kuma mafi gamsarwa ta bayyana kewayen duniya.

3. Hoton Robert Boyle (1627-1691) na J. Kerseboom.

Faɗuwa da sake haifuwa

Shekaru aru-aru, ka'idar atomic ta tsaya baya ga kimiyyar al'ada. Duk da haka, ba ta mutu a ƙarshe ba, ra'ayoyinta sun tsira, sun kai ga masana kimiyya na Turai a cikin fassarar falsafar Larabci na tsoffin rubuce-rubucen. Tare da haɓaka ilimin ɗan adam, tushen ka'idar Aristotle ya fara rugujewa. Tsarin heliocentric na Nicolaus Copernicus, farkon abin lura na supernovae (Tycho de Brache) ya taso daga babu inda, gano dokokin motsi na taurari (Johannes Kepler) da watannin Jupiter (Galileo) yana nufin cewa a cikin sha shida da sha bakwai. ƙarni, mutane sun daina rayuwa a ƙarƙashin sararin sama ba su canzawa tun farkon duniya. A duniya kuma, shine ƙarshen ra'ayoyin Aristotle.

Ƙoƙarin ƙarnuka na masana kimiyya bai kawo sakamakon da ake sa ran ba - sun kasa mayar da karafa na yau da kullun zuwa zinari. Da yawa masana kimiyya sun yi tambaya game da wanzuwar abubuwan da kansu, kuma sun tuna da ka'idar Democritus.

4. Gwajin da aka yi a shekara ta 1654 tare da hemispheres na Magdeburg ya tabbatar da wanzuwar vacuum da matsa lamba na yanayi (dawakai 16 ba za su iya karya makwabciyarsu ba daga inda aka fitar da iska!).

Robert Boyle a shekara ta 1661 ya ba da ma’anar sinadari mai amfani a matsayin wani abu da ba za a iya raba shi cikin sassansa ta hanyar nazarin sinadarai (3). Ya yi imani da cewa kwayoyin halitta sun ƙunshi ƙananan, ƙwaƙƙwaran da ba za a iya raba su ba waɗanda suka bambanta da siffar da girma. Haɗuwa, suna samar da ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin sinadarai waɗanda ke haɗa kwayoyin halitta.

Boyle ya kira waɗannan ƙananan barbashi corpuscles, ko "corpuscles" (wani ra'ayi na kalmar Latin corpus = jiki). Babu shakka ra'ayoyin Boyle sun sami tasiri ta hanyar ƙirƙirar injin famfo (Otto von Guericke, 1650) da haɓakar famfunan piston don matsawa iska. Kasancewar vacuum da yuwuwar canza nisa (sakamakon matsawa) tsakanin barbashi na iska sun shaida yarda da ka'idar Democritus (4).

Babban masanin kimiyya na lokacin, Sir Isaac Newton, shi ma masanin kimiyyar atomic. (5). Dangane da ra'ayoyin Boyle, ya gabatar da hasashe game da hadewar jiki zuwa manyan siffofi. Maimakon tsarin daɗaɗɗen gashin ido da ƙugiya, ɗaure su - ta yaya kuma - ta hanyar nauyi.

5. Hoton Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), na G. Kneller.

Don haka, Newton ya haɗu da hulɗar da ke cikin dukan sararin samaniya - karfi ɗaya ne ke sarrafa duka motsin taurari da tsarin mafi ƙanƙanta na kwayoyin halitta. Masanin kimiyya ya yi imanin cewa haske kuma ya ƙunshi gawar jiki.

A yau mun san cewa ya kasance "rabi dama" - yawancin hulɗar tsakanin radiation da kwayoyin halitta ana bayyana su ta hanyar kwararar photons.

Chemistry ya zo cikin wasa

Har zuwa kusan ƙarshen karni na XNUMX, atoms sune haƙƙin masana kimiyyar lissafi. Duk da haka, juyin juya halin sinadarai ne wanda Antoine Lavoisier ya qaddamar ya sanya ra'ayin tsarin granular kwayoyin halitta gaba ɗaya yarda.

Gano hadadden tsari na tsoffin abubuwa - ruwa da iska - a karshe ya karyata ka'idar Aristotle. A karshen karni na XNUMX, ka'idar kiyaye yawan jama'a da kuma imani da rashin yiwuwar sauya abubuwa kuma ba ta haifar da adawa ba. Sikeli sun zama kayan aiki na yau da kullun a cikin dakin gwaje-gwajen sinadarai.

6. John Dalton (1766-1844)

Godiya ga amfani da shi, an lura cewa abubuwa suna haɗuwa da juna, suna samar da wasu mahadi na sinadarai a cikin ma'auni na yau da kullum (ba tare da la'akari da asalin su - na halitta ko artificially samu - da kuma hanyar hadawa).

Wannan abin lura ya zama mai sauƙin bayyanawa idan muka ɗauka cewa kwayoyin halitta sun ƙunshi sassan da ba za a iya ganuwa ba waɗanda suka haɗa gaba ɗaya. zarra. Mahaliccin ka'idar zarra ta zamani, John Dalton (1766-1844) (6), ya bi wannan tafarki. Wani masanin kimiyya a 1808 ya ce:

1. Atoms ba su lalacewa kuma ba za su iya canzawa ba (wannan, ba shakka, ya kawar da yiwuwar sauye-sauyen alchemical).
2. Dukkan al'amura sun kasance daga kwayoyin halitta marasa ganuwa.
3. Dukkan kwayoyin halittar da aka bayar iri daya ne, wato suna da siffa iri daya, da yawa da kaddarorinsu. Duk da haka, abubuwa daban-daban sun ƙunshi nau'ikan atom daban-daban.
4. A cikin halayen sunadarai, kawai hanyar shiga atoms ke canzawa, daga abin da aka gina kwayoyin mahadi na sinadarai - a cikin wasu nau'i (7).

Wani binciken kuma, wanda ya dogara kan lura da yanayin sauye-sauyen sinadarai, shine hasashe na masanin kimiyyar lissafi dan kasar Italiya Amadeo Avogadro. Masanin kimiyya ya zo ga ƙarshe cewa daidai adadin iskar gas a ƙarƙashin yanayi guda (matsi da zafin jiki) suna ɗauke da adadin kwayoyin halitta iri ɗaya. Wannan binciken ya ba da damar kafa tsarin ma'auni na mahadi masu yawa da kuma ƙayyade yawan jama'a zarra.

7. Alamomin atomic da Dalton ke amfani da shi (Sabon Tsarin Falsafar Sinadarai, 1808)

8. Platonic daskararru - alamomin atom na tsohuwar "kasuwanci" (Wikipedia, marubuci: Maxim Pe)

Sau nawa don yanke?

Bayyanar ra'ayin zarra yana hade da tambaya: "Shin akwai ƙarshen rarraba kwayoyin halitta?". Alal misali, bari mu ɗauki apple mai diamita na 10 cm da wuka kuma mu fara slicing 'ya'yan itace. Na farko, a cikin rabi, sannan rabin apple zuwa sassa biyu (daidai da yankewar da ta gabata), da dai sauransu Bayan wasu lokuta, ba shakka, za mu gama, amma babu abin da ya hana mu ci gaba da gwaji a cikin tunanin kwayar zarra daya? Dubu, miliyan ɗaya, watakila ƙari?

Bayan cin yankakken apple (mai dadi!), Bari mu fara lissafin (waɗanda suka san manufar ci gaban geometric za su sami matsala kaɗan). Kashi na farko zai ba mu rabin 'ya'yan itace tare da kauri na 5 cm, yanke na gaba zai ba mu yanki tare da kauri na 2,5 cm, da dai sauransu ... 10 dukan tsiya! Saboda haka, "hanyar" zuwa duniyar kwayoyin halitta ba ta da tsawo.

*) Yi amfani da wuka mai bakin ciki mara iyaka. A hakikanin gaskiya, irin wannan abu ba ya wanzu, amma tun da Albert Einstein a cikin bincikensa ya yi la'akari da jiragen kasa masu tafiya a cikin saurin haske, mu ma an yarda da mu - don dalilai na gwaji na tunani - don yin zato na sama.

Platonic kwayoyin halitta

Plato, daya daga cikin manya-manyan tunani na zamanin da, ya bayyana kwayoyin halittar da za a hada su a cikin tattaunawar Timachos. Waɗannan sifofin suna da nau'in polyhedra na yau da kullun (Daskararrun Platonic). Don haka, tetrahedron ya kasance zarra na wuta (kamar yadda mafi ƙanƙanta kuma mafi ƙasƙanci), octahedron ya kasance zarra na iska, icosahedron kuma kwayar zarra ce ta ruwa (dukkan daskararrun suna da bangon triangles daidai). Cube na murabba'i kwayar zarra ce ta duniya, kuma dodecahedron na pentagons kwayar zarra ce ta ingantaccen sinada - ether na sama (8).