Tarihin Abubuwan Ƙirƙirar - Nanotechnology

Tuni a kusa da 600 BC. mutane suna samar da tsarin nanotype, watau cementite strands a cikin karfe, wanda ake kira Wootz. Wannan ya faru a Indiya, kuma ana iya ɗaukar wannan farkon tarihin nanotechnology.

Farashin VI-XV. Rini da ake amfani da su a wannan lokacin don zanen tagogi masu tabo suna amfani da gwal chloride nanoparticles, chlorides na sauran karafa, da kuma karfe oxides.

IX-XVII ƙarni A wurare da yawa a Turai, ana samar da "mai kyalli" da sauran abubuwa don ba da haske ga yumbu da sauran kayayyaki. Sun ƙunshi nanoparticles na karafa, galibi azurfa ko tagulla.

XIII-XVIII w. "Karfe na Damascus" da aka samar a wadannan ƙarni, wanda daga cikinsa aka yi sanannun fararen makamai na duniya, ya ƙunshi carbon nanotubes da nanofibers na siminti.

1857 Michael Faraday ya gano gwal colloidal mai launin ruby, halayen nanoparticles na gwal.

1931 Max Knoll da Ernst Ruska sun gina microscope na lantarki a Berlin, na'urar farko don ganin tsarin nanoparticles a matakin atomic. Mafi girman ƙarfin kuzarin na'urorin lantarki, gajeriyar tsayinsu kuma mafi girman ƙudurin na'urar gani. Samfurin yana cikin sarari kuma galibi an rufe shi da fim ɗin ƙarfe. Wutar lantarki ta ratsa cikin abin da aka gwada kuma ya shiga cikin ganowa. Dangane da sigina da aka auna, na'urorin lantarki suna sake ƙirƙirar hoton samfurin gwajin.

1936 Erwin Müller, wanda ke aiki a dakunan gwaje-gwaje na Siemens, ya ƙirƙira siginar sinadarai na fili, mafi sauƙi nau'i na na'ura mai kama da na'urar lantarki. Wannan microscope yana amfani da filin lantarki mai ƙarfi don fitar da fili da hoto.

1950 Victor La Mer da Robert Dinegar sun ƙirƙiri tushen ka'idar don dabarar samun kayan colloidal monodisperse. Wannan ya ba da izinin samar da nau'ikan takarda na musamman, fenti da fina-finai na bakin ciki akan sikelin masana'antu.

1956 Arthur von Hippel na Cibiyar Fasaha ta Massachusetts (MIT) ya kirkiro kalmar "injinin kwayoyin halitta".

1959 Richard Feynman ya yi laccoci akan "Akwai daki da yawa a ƙasa." Farawa ta hanyar tunanin abin da zai ɗauka don dacewa da Encyclopædia Britannica mai girma 24 a kan madauri, ya gabatar da ra'ayi na ƙaranci da yiwuwar yin amfani da fasahar da za ta iya aiki a matakin nanometer. A wannan lokacin, ya kafa lambobin yabo guda biyu (wanda ake kira Feynman Prizes) don nasarori a wannan fanni - dala dubu ɗaya kowanne.

1960 Biyan kyaututtukan farko ya baci Feynman. Ya yi zaton cewa za a bukaci ci gaban fasaha don cimma burinsa, amma a lokacin ya raina yuwuwar microelectronics. Wanda ya yi nasara shi ne injiniya William H. McLellan mai shekaru 35. Ya ƙirƙiri wata mota mai nauyin microgram 250, tare da ƙarfin 1mW.

1968 Alfred Y. Cho da John Arthur sun haɓaka hanyar epitaxy. Yana ba da damar samuwar yadudduka na monoatomic ta amfani da fasahar semiconductor - haɓakar sabbin yadudduka-crystal a kan wani madaidaicin kristal da ke akwai, yana kwafin tsarin madaidaicin substrate crystalline. Bambancin epitaxy shine epitaxy na mahadi na kwayoyin halitta, wanda ke sa ya yiwu a ajiye yadudduka na crystalline tare da kauri na Layer atomic guda ɗaya. Ana amfani da wannan hanyar wajen samar da ɗigon ƙididdiga da abin da ake kira siraran sirara.

1974 Gabatar da kalmar "nanotechnology". Wani mai bincike na Jami'ar Tokyo Norio Taniguchi ne ya fara amfani da shi a wani taron kimiyya. Ma'anar kimiyyar lissafi ta Jafananci tana nan ana amfani da ita har zuwa yau kuma tana kama da haka: “Nanotechnology samarwa ce ta amfani da fasaha wanda ke ba da damar samun daidaito sosai da ƙananan girma, watau. daidaiton tsari na 1 nm.

Hange na juzu'in adadi

80s da 90s Lokacin saurin haɓaka fasahar lithographic da kuma samar da nau'ikan lu'ulu'u na ultrathin. Na farko, MOCVD(), hanya ce don saka yadudduka a saman kayan ta amfani da mahaɗan gaseous organometallic mahadi. Wannan yana ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin epitaxial, don haka madadin sunan sa - MOSFE (). Hanya ta biyu, MBE, tana ba da damar shigar da yadudduka na nanometer sirara tare da ƙayyadaddun sinadarai da aka ƙayyade da kuma daidaitaccen rarraba bayanin martabar ƙazanta. Wannan yana yiwuwa ne saboda gaskiyar cewa ana ba da kayan haɗin Layer zuwa maƙallan ta hanyar katako na kwayoyin halitta.

1981 Gerd Binnig da Heinrich Rohrer sun ƙirƙira na'urar duba microscope. Yin amfani da ƙarfin hulɗar interatomic, yana ba ku damar samun hoton saman tare da ƙuduri na tsari na girman nau'in zarra guda ɗaya, ta hanyar wucewa da ruwa a sama ko ƙasa da saman samfurin. A cikin 1989, an yi amfani da na'urar don sarrafa nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta. Binnig da Rohrer sun sami lambar yabo ta Nobel a Physics a 1986.

1985 Louis Brus na Bell Labs ya gano colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (kwayoyin ƙima). An ayyana su a matsayin ƙaramin yanki na sararin samaniya da aka ɗaure ta cikin girma uku ta hanyar shingaye masu yuwuwa lokacin da barbashi mai tsayi mai tsayin tsayin digo ya shiga.

Murfin littafin Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology by C. Eric Drexler

1985 Robert Floyd Curl, Jr., Harold Walter Kroto, da Richard Erret Smalley sun gano fullerenes, kwayoyin halittar da aka yi da adadin atom din carbon (daga 28 zuwa kusan 1500) wadanda suka zama rufaffiyar jiki. Abubuwan sinadarai na fullerenes ta fuskoki da yawa sun yi kama da na hydrocarbons na kamshi. Fullerene C60, ko buckminsterfullerene, kamar sauran fullerenes, wani allotropic nau'i ne na carbon.

1986-1992 C. Eric Drexler ya buga littattafai masu mahimmanci guda biyu akan ilimin gaba waɗanda suka shahara da nanotechnology. Na farko, wanda aka saki a cikin 1986, ana kiransa Injin Ƙirƙira: Zamanin Zuwan Nanotechnology. Ya yi hasashen, a cikin wasu abubuwa, cewa fasahohin na gaba za su iya sarrafa nau'ikan zarra ta hanyar sarrafawa. A cikin 1992, ya buga Nanosystems: Molecular Hardware, Manufacturing, and the Computational Idea, wanda kuma ya yi hasashen cewa nanomachines na iya haifuwa da kansu.

1989 Donald M. Aigler na IBM ya sanya kalmar "IBM" - wanda aka yi daga 35 xenon atom - akan saman nickel.

1991 Sumio Iijima na NEC a Tsukuba, Japan, ya gano carbon nanotubes, sifofi mara kyau. Har zuwa yau, sanannun carbon nanotubes, ganuwar da aka yi da graphene birgima. Akwai kuma wadanda ba carbon nanotubes da DNA nanotubes. Mafi siraran carbon nanotubes suna kan tsari na nanometer ɗaya a diamita kuma yana iya yin tsayin sau miliyoyi. Suna da ƙarfin juzu'i na ban mamaki da kaddarorin lantarki na musamman, kuma suna da kyawawan masu jagoranci na zafi. Waɗannan kaddarorin suna sanya su kayan alƙawarin don aikace-aikace a cikin nanotechnology, Electronics, Optics, da kimiyyar kayan.

1993 Warren Robinett na Jami'ar North Carolina da R. Stanley Williams na Jami'ar California, Los Angeles suna gina wani tsari na zahiri da ke da alaƙa da na'urar tantance ma'aunin duban ramin da ke ba mai amfani damar gani har ma da taɓa atom.

1998 Tawagar Cees Dekker a Jami'ar Fasaha ta Delft a Netherlands tana gina transistor mai amfani da carbon nanotubes. A halin yanzu, masana kimiyya suna ƙoƙarin yin amfani da abubuwan musamman na carbon nanotubes don samar da ingantattun na'urorin lantarki da sauri waɗanda ke cinye ƙarancin wutar lantarki. An iyakance wannan ta wasu dalilai da yawa, wasu daga cikinsu an shawo kan su a hankali, wanda a cikin 2016 ya jagoranci masu bincike a Jami'ar Wisconsin-Madison don ƙirƙirar transistor carbon tare da ingantattun sigogi fiye da mafi kyawun samfuran silicon. Binciken da Michael Arnold da Padma Gopalan suka yi ya haifar da samar da transistor nanotube na carbon nanotube wanda zai iya ɗaukar ninki biyu na halin yanzu na abokin hamayyarsa na silicon.

2003 Samsung ya ba da haƙƙin fasaha na ci gaba bisa aikin ions na azurfa, waɗanda ke lalata ƙwayoyin cuta, mold da nau'ikan ƙwayoyin cuta sama da ɗari shida kuma suna hana yaduwar su. An shigar da ɓangarori na azurfa a cikin mafi mahimmancin tsarin tacewa na kamfanin - duk masu tacewa da mai tara ƙura ko jaka.

2004 Kungiyar Royal Royal Society da Royal Academy of Engineering sun buga rahoton "Nanoscience and Nanotechnology: Opportunities and Uncertainities", suna kira da a gudanar da bincike kan illar nanotechnology ga lafiya, muhalli da al'umma, la'akari da al'amuran da'a da shari'a.

Samfurin Nanomotor akan ƙafafu na fullerene

2006 James Tour, tare da tawagar masana kimiyya daga Jami'ar Rice, suna kera wani "van" da ba a iya gani ba daga wani kwayar oligo (phenyleneethynylene), wanda gatarinsa an yi su da atom na aluminum, kuma ƙafafun an yi su da C60 fullerenes. Nanovehicle ya motsa a saman, wanda ya ƙunshi nau'in atom na zinariya, a ƙarƙashin rinjayar karuwar zafin jiki, saboda jujjuyawar "wheels" na fullerene. Sama da zafin jiki na 300 ° C, ya haɓaka sosai har masana kimiyya ba za su iya bin sa ba ...

2007 Masu fasahar nanotechnologists sun dace da dukan "Tsohon Alkawari" na Yahudawa zuwa wani yanki na kawai 0,5 mm² siliki mai launin zinari. An zana rubutun ta hanyar karkata rafin gallium da aka mayar da hankali akan farantin.

2009-2010 Nadrian Seaman da abokan aiki a Jami'ar New York suna ƙirƙirar jerin DNA-kamar nanomounts wanda za'a iya tsara tsarin DNA na roba don "samar" wasu sifofi tare da siffofi da kaddarorin da ake so.

2013 Masana kimiyya na IBM suna ƙirƙirar fim mai rai wanda ba za a iya kallo ba bayan an ɗaukaka shi sau miliyan 100. Ana kiransa "Yaron da Atom ɗinsa" kuma an zana shi tare da diatomic diatomic ɗigon mita biliyan ɗaya a girman, waɗanda kwayoyin halitta ɗaya ne na carbon monoxide. Hotunan zanen ya nuna wani yaro da ya fara wasa da kwallo sannan ya yi tsalle a kan trampoline. Daya daga cikin kwayoyin kuma yana taka rawar kwallon. Duk wani aiki yana faruwa a saman jan karfe, kuma girman kowane firam ɗin fim ɗin bai wuce dubun nanometer da yawa ba.

2014 Masana kimiyya daga Jami'ar Fasaha ta ETH da ke Zurich sun yi nasarar samar da wani laka mai kauri wanda bai wuce nanometer daya ba. Kauri daga cikin kayan da aka samu ta hanyar sarrafa nanotechnological shine 100 XNUMX. sau ƙanƙanta fiye da na gashin ɗan adam. A cewar membobin ƙungiyar mawallafa, wannan shine mafi ƙaƙƙarfan abu mara ƙarfi wanda za'a iya samu kuma yana yiwuwa gabaɗaya. Ya ƙunshi yadudduka biyu na tsarin graphene mai girma biyu. Membran yana iya jurewa, amma ga ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta, yana raguwa ko gaba ɗaya yana kama manyan barbashi.

2015 Ana ƙirƙira famfo na ƙwayoyin cuta, na'urar nanoscale wacce ke isar da makamashi daga wannan ƙwayar zuwa wani, tana kwaikwayon tsarin halitta. Masu bincike a Kwalejin Fasaha da Kimiyya ta Weinberg Northwestern sun tsara shi. Tsarin yana tunawa da hanyoyin nazarin halittu a cikin sunadarai. Ana sa ran cewa irin waɗannan fasahohin za su sami aikace-aikace musamman a fannonin fasahar kere-kere da magunguna, alal misali, a cikin tsokoki na wucin gadi.

2016 A cewar wani wallafe-wallafe a cikin mujallar kimiyyar Nature Nanotechnology, masu bincike a Jami'ar Fasaha ta Dutch Delft sun haɓaka kafofin watsa labarai na ajiya guda ɗaya. Sabuwar hanyar yakamata ta samar da ma'auni fiye da sau ɗari biyar fiye da kowace fasaha da ake amfani da ita a halin yanzu. Marubutan sun lura cewa har ma mafi kyawun sakamako za a iya samu ta amfani da nau'in nau'in nau'i uku na wurin da barbashi a sararin samaniya.

Rarraba nanotechnologies da nanomaterials

1. Tsarin Nanotechnological sun haɗa da:

• rijiyoyin ƙididdiga, wayoyi da ɗigo, i.e. sifofi daban-daban waɗanda ke haɗa fasalin mai zuwa - iyakancewar sarari na barbashi a wani yanki ta hanyar yuwuwar shinge;
• robobi, tsarin da aka sarrafa a matakin kowane kwayoyin halitta, godiya ga abin da zai yiwu, alal misali, don samun kayan aiki tare da kayan aikin injiniya wanda ba a taɓa gani ba;
• filaye na wucin gadi - kayan da ke da madaidaicin tsarin kwayoyin halitta, wanda kuma aka bambanta ta hanyar kayan aikin injiniya;
• nanotubes, supramolecular Tsarin a cikin nau'i na m cylinders. Har zuwa yau, mafi sanannun carbon nanotubes, ganuwar da aka yi da folded graphene (monatomic graphite yadudduka). Hakanan akwai nanotubes marasa carbon (misali, daga tungsten sulfide) kuma daga DNA;
• kayan da aka niƙa a cikin nau'i na ƙura, hatsin su, alal misali, tarin ƙwayoyin ƙarfe. Azurfa () tare da kaddarorin ƙwayoyin cuta masu ƙarfi ana amfani da su sosai a cikin wannan nau'i;
• nanowires (misali, azurfa ko jan karfe);
• abubuwan da aka kafa ta amfani da lithography na lantarki da sauran hanyoyin nanolithography;
• masu cikawa;
• graphene da sauran abubuwa masu girma biyu (borophene, graphene, boron nitride hexagonal, silicene, germanene, molybdenum sulfide);
• kayan hade da aka karfafa da nanoparticles.

Nanolithographic surface

2. Rarraba nanotechnologies a cikin tsarin ilimin kimiyya, wanda kungiyar Hadin gwiwar Tattalin Arziki da Ci Gaba (OECD) ta haɓaka a cikin 2004:

• nanomaterials (samarwa da kaddarorin);
• nanoprocesses (nanoscale aikace-aikace - biomaterials na masana'antu Biotechnology).

3. Nanomaterials duk kayan aiki ne waɗanda ke da sifofi na yau da kullun a matakin ƙwayoyin cuta, watau. bai wuce nanometer 100 ba.

Wannan iyaka yana iya komawa zuwa girman yanki a matsayin ainihin naúrar microstructure, ko zuwa kauri na yadudduka da aka samu ko aka ajiye akan ma'auni. A aikace, iyakar da ke ƙasa wanda aka danganta ga nanomaterials ya bambanta don kayan da ke da kaddarorin ayyuka daban-daban - yana da alaƙa da bayyanar takamaiman kaddarorin lokacin da ya wuce. Ta hanyar rage girman sifofin da aka ba da umarni na kayan, yana yiwuwa a inganta haɓakar su physicochemical, inji, da sauran kaddarorin.

Ana iya raba abubuwan nanomaterials zuwa ƙungiyoyi huɗu masu zuwa:

• sifili-girma (dige nanomaterials) - alal misali, ɗigon ƙididdiga, nanoparticles na azurfa;
• mai girma daya - misali, karfe ko semiconductor nanowires, nanorods, polymeric nanofibers;
• mai girma biyu - alal misali, nanometer yadudduka na nau'i-nau'i ɗaya ko nau'i mai yawa, graphene da sauran kayan tare da kauri ɗaya;
• mai girma uku (ko nanocrystalline) - ya ƙunshi yanki na crystalline da tarawa na matakai tare da girma na tsari na nanometers ko composites ƙarfafa tare da nanoparticles.